In the hushed corridors of time, a silent language whispers tales of bygone eras—not through words etched in stone or inked on papyrus, but through the ephemeral wisps of scent that once perfumed the air of ancient metropolises. As we embark on this olfactory journey, we unravel the aromatic tapestry that clothed the world’s earliest urban centers, exploring how perfume shaped the very essence of ancient life.

The art of perfume creation has roots deep in ancient civilizations, where fragrant concoctions were as integral to daily life as they are in modern society. From the resinous myrrh-laden air of Mesopotamian streets to the lotus-infused breezes of Egyptian temples, each ancient city boasted its unique olfactory signature—a scent profile as distinctive as a fingerprint.

Archaeological evidence of ancient perfumes provides a unique window into the olfactory preferences of our ancestors. In the sun-baked ruins of Pyrgos, Cyprus, scientists uncovered what is believed to be the world’s oldest perfumery, dating back to 2000 BCE. This discovery revealed a sophisticated understanding of extraction and blending techniques that rival modern methods [1].

Dr. Maria Rosaria Belgiorno, Director of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Cyprus and lead archaeologist of the Pyrgos excavation, has documented extensive findings about this ancient perfume industry. Her groundbreaking work “Pyrgos-Mavroraki, a Perfume Metropolis of the Bronze Age” details how this 4,000-year-old facility contained distillation equipment, mixing bowls, and storage vessels still containing residues of perfume ingredients [2]. Her excavations revealed evidence of sophisticated botanical knowledge, with fragrance formulations using herbs, spices, and resins that would be recognizable to modern perfumers.

By studying historical fragrances, we gain insight into the cultural, religious, and social significance of scent in bygone eras. In ancient Egypt, perfume was not merely a luxury but a connection to the divine. The sacred Kyphi, a complex blend of 16 ingredients including myrrh, juniper, and cinnamon, was burned in temples as an offering to the gods [3].

Olfactory cartography allows us to reconstruct the aromatic landscapes of ancient cities, painting a vivid picture of life in these long-lost urban centers. The narrow streets of ancient Rome, for instance, would have been a cacophony of scents—from the smoky incense of temples to the pungent aromas of tanneries and fish markets.

Professor David Karmon’s work on Roman urban environments provides valuable context for understanding the sensory experience of ancient cities. Though focusing primarily on architectural preservation in “The Ruins of the Eternal City,” his research helps us understand how urban planning in ancient Rome created distinct olfactory zones where religious, commercial, and residential activities each generated their own scent profiles [4].

Imagine awakening to the first light of dawn in Thebes, Ancient Egypt, circa 1450 BCE. The morning air carries the sacred lotus perfume wafting from the temple precincts, mingling with the smoky aroma of bread baking in clay ovens. As you move through the marketplace, your senses are assaulted by pyramids of ground spices—cinnamon, cardamom, and saffron—their potent aromas heightened by the desert heat. Noble women pass by, their skin glistening with lily-infused oils, while priests emanate the distinctive resinous scent of kyphi that clings to their robes after morning rituals. By nightfall, the air cools, carrying with it the sweet perfume of night-blooming jasmine and the lingering aroma of cedar and myrrh burning in household shrines [5].

Transport yourself now to Chang’an (modern Xi’an), China, during the Tang Dynasty. Dawn breaks with the delicate scent of plum blossoms and the earthy aroma of tea leaves being crushed for the morning brew. The Imperial Palace gardens exude the refined fragrance of peonies and osmanthus flowers, specially cultivated for the Emperor’s pleasure. Walking through the bustling markets, you encounter merchants from the Silk Road offering exotic aromatics—frankincense from Arabia, ambergris from distant shores, and sandalwood from India. In perfumers’ workshops, craftsmen distill complex fragrances for courtesans and noblewomen, blending musk, agarwood, and clove with local florals. As evening descends, temples burn aloes wood incense, its sweet, complex smoke believed to purify the air and please the ancestors [6].

In Rome during the height of the Empire, your morning begins with the sharp scent of vinegar and rose water used for cleansing by patrician households. The public baths—a morning ritual for many Romans—fill the air with an intoxicating blend of olive oils infused with bay laurel, rosemary, and imported spices. The Forum buzzes with activity and a collision of scents: the animalic notes of leather goods, the metallic tang from blacksmiths’ forges, and the sweet perfume of garlands worn by senators’ wives. Street vendors sell pomanders of ambergris and civet to mask the less pleasant urban odors, while wealthy homes are fumigated with costly Arabian frankincense. Night brings the smell of beeswax candles in aristocratic villas and the lingering scent of lavender and chamomile strewn on dining couches [7].

Travel to Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, where your day begins with the aromatic steam of chocolate prepared with vanilla and chili, a sacred beverage reserved for the elite. The great market at Tlatelolco offers a sensory overload of indigenous scents: towers of fresh copal resin—the tears of sacred trees that produce a sweet, pine-like aroma when burned; bundles of vanilla pods; and rare floral extracts from magnolia to xochinacaztli (sacred ear flower). Temple precincts are thick with the heady smoke of copal incense, believed to feed the gods and carry prayers skyward. Noble women adorn themselves with necklaces of aromatic flowers—tuberose, marigold, and jasmine—creating living perfumes that change throughout the day. As the sun sets, homes burn ocote pine, filling the evening air with its distinctive, resinous warmth [8].

Finally, imagine walking through the streets of ancient Babylon during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. Morning begins with the pervasive scent of date palm orchards that surround the city, their honey-like sweetness carried on the breeze. The hanging gardens—a wonder of the ancient world—create a microclimate of verdant freshness amid the desert heat, with imported roses, lily, and cypress releasing their perfume under the gentle mist of irrigation systems. Temples dedicated to Ishtar burn cypress and cedar continuously, the blue smoke rising from golden censers. Perfumers’ workshops near the palace compound crush imported spices from India and locally harvested herbs, steeping them in sesame and olive oils to create unguents for religious and cosmetic purposes. As evening approaches, banquet halls prepare for feasts, the air thick with the aroma of saffron, honey, and the distinctive scent of calamus root, an ancient aphrodisiac believed to stir desire in even the most restrained heart [9].

The question of recreating historical fragrances presents a fascinating intersection of archaeology, chemistry, and artistry. While modern perfumers have access to sophisticated analytical tools that can identify molecular compounds in archaeological residues, the challenge of authentic recreation extends far beyond simple identification.

Emilie Coppermann, Senior Perfumer at Symrise and recipient of the prestigious Prix François Coty in 2018, has created fragrances for brands including Paco Rabanne, Yves Saint Laurent, and Thierry Mugler. Her expertise spans both modern and historical approaches to perfumery, making her insights into scent recreation particularly valuable [10].

Modern attempts at recreation face several significant challenges. First, many botanical species have evolved over centuries, meaning that the rose or jasmine available today may have a significantly different scent profile than its ancient counterpart. Similarly, environmental factors—soil composition, climate, and cultivation methods—all influence the aromatic compounds produced by plants.

Véronique Nyberg, Senior Vice President at Mane and former senior perfumer at IFF, holds a Ph.D. in organic chemistry alongside her perfumery training. This unique combination of scientific and artistic expertise makes her especially qualified to address the technical challenges of analyzing and recreating historical scent profiles [11].

Perhaps most significantly, our olfactory preferences have undergone a radical transformation. Ancient perfumes would likely overwhelm modern sensibilities with their intensity and animalic notes.

This evolutionary shift in taste reflects broader cultural changes. Where ancient perfumes often served religious purposes or masked environmental odors in pre-sanitation societies, modern fragrances are primarily personal expressions of identity and style. The sacred and medicinal has given way to the aesthetic and psychological.

Several academic institutions and perfume houses continue efforts to recreate historical fragrances as accurately as possible. The Getty Conservation Institute has collaborated with perfumers to recreate ancient Egyptian formulas based on residues found in tomb artifacts [12]. Similarly, the Osmothèque in Versailles preserves and recreates historical perfumes, serving as a living archive of olfactory history [13].

Jean-Claude Ellena, former in-house perfumer at Hermès and author of “Perfume: The Alchemy of Scent,” stands out among modern perfumers for his scholarly approach to historical perfumery. His minimalist style is informed by deep research into ancient techniques, particularly those from the Mediterranean and Middle East. Ellena has worked directly with archaeological teams to interpret ancient formulas found in Egyptian papyri and Greek texts, translating them into scents accessible to modern noses while maintaining historical authenticity [14].

Throughout the world, certain regions maintain direct links to ancient perfumery traditions, creating unbroken olfactory lineages that span millennia. Perhaps nowhere is this continuity more evident than in the Middle East, where the use of oud (agarwood), frankincense, and rose continues to define regional perfumery.

The Arabian Peninsula represents one of the world’s oldest continuous perfume cultures. The traditional use of oud in the Gulf states isn’t simply a preference; it’s a cultural practice with direct connections to pre-Islamic Arabic traditions. When a Saudi or Emirati person burns bakhoor (wood chips soaked in fragrant oils) in their home today, they’re participating in a ritual that would be recognizable to their ancestors from thousands of years ago.

This continuity extends to personal fragrance practices as well. The traditional Arabian layering technique—applying scented oils directly to the skin, then ‘capturing’ the fragrance in clothing by smoking garments with burning oud or frankincense—creates a complex, evolving personal scent narrative that stands in stark contrast to the Western approach of applying a single, pre-blended perfume.

Similarly, Japan’s relationship with incense (kōdō) represents another enduring fragrance tradition. Formalized during the Muromachi period (14th-16th centuries) but with roots extending back to the introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century, kōdō elevates incense appreciation to an art form comparable to the tea ceremony.

Dr. Saskia Wilson-Brown, founder of the Institute for Art and Olfaction, has made significant contributions to the academic study of historical perfumery. Her organization has created the “Ancient Resins Project,” which systematically documents and preserves traditional incense-making techniques from Japan, India, and the Middle East that have remained relatively unchanged for centuries. This work serves as a critical bridge between academic research and practical preservation of living olfactory heritage [15].

In India itself, the attars of Kannauj—steam-distilled fragrances captured in sandalwood oil rather than alcohol—represent one of the world’s oldest continuous perfumery traditions. The techniques used by artisanal attar makers today differ little from those documented during the Mughal period, creating an unbroken chain of knowledge stretching back centuries.

Even in regions where direct continuity has been interrupted, traditional materials continue to exert powerful cultural influences. In Mexico, copal—the sacred resin burned by the Aztecs and Maya in religious ceremonies—remains an important element in Day of the Dead celebrations and indigenous spiritual practices.

Mandy Aftel, perfumer and author of “Essence and Alchemy: A Natural History of Perfume,” has done groundbreaking work connecting ancient perfumery practices with modern artisanal perfumery. Unlike commercial perfumers, Aftel’s research-based approach has involved recreating historical techniques such as enfleurage and tincturing exactly as they would have been performed centuries ago. Her Berkeley-based Aftel Archive of Curious Scents serves as both a museum of perfume history and a working laboratory where visitors can experience recreated historical scents firsthand [16].

Today’s fine perfumes often draw inspiration from the rich tapestry of scents that once perfumed the streets of ancient metropolises. The allure of historical fragrances continues to captivate modern perfumers, who seek to recreate or reimagine these lost scents for contemporary noses.

Numerous luxury brands have released fragrances inspired by ancient perfume traditions. Guerlain’s Shalimar draws on Persian garden traditions, while Dior’s Ambre Nuit references the amber-based perfumes of the ancient Arab world. Each of these creations represents not just a fragrance but an interpretation of history through the medium of scent [17].

As we conclude our aromatic expedition through time, it becomes clear that perfume is more than just a pleasant accessory—it’s a time capsule, a cultural artifact, and a bridge between past and present. The lost scent signatures of ancient cities continue to influence and inspire the world of modern perfumery, reminding us that in the realm of fragrance, history is always just a breath away.

How did ancient civilizations create perfumes without modern distillation techniques?
Ancient perfumers used methods like enfleurage, where fats absorbed floral scents, and maceration, where ingredients were soaked in oils. They also employed primitive forms of distillation using heat and cold traps to capture essential oils [18].

Can we accurately recreate ancient perfumes today?
While we can approximate ancient scents based on archaeological evidence and historical texts, exact recreation is challenging due to changes in available ingredients and modern safety regulations. However, some perfumers and archaeologists collaborate to create historically inspired fragrances [19].

How did perfume influence social status in ancient societies?
Perfume was often a symbol of wealth and power in ancient societies. In Egypt, certain scents were reserved for royalty and religious ceremonies, while in Rome, the type and quality of perfume one wore could indicate their social standing [20].

What role did trade routes play in ancient perfumery?
Trade routes like the Silk Road were crucial for the exchange of aromatic materials. They allowed for the spread of ingredients and techniques across different cultures, enriching the art of perfumery and contributing to the unique scent profiles of various regions [21].

How has the perception of perfume changed from ancient times to today?
While perfume in ancient times was often linked to religious and medicinal purposes, today it’s primarily seen as a personal adornment and expression of identity. However, the emotional and psychological impacts of scent remain a constant thread throughout history [22].

[1] Belgiorno, M. R., “Pyrgos-Mavroraki, a Perfume Metropolis of the Bronze Age,” Archaeopress, Oxford, ISBN 978-1789690378, 2018. https://www.archaeopress.com/Archaeopress/Products/9781789690378

[2] Belgiorno, M. R., “The Perfume of Cyprus: from Pyrgos to François Coty the route of a millenary charm,” Revised Edition, ISBN 978-9963244829, 2017.

[3] Manniche, L., “Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy, and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt,” Cornell University Press, Ithaca, ISBN 978-0801437205, 1999.

[4] Karmon, D., “The Ruins of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome,” Oxford University Press, New York, ISBN 978-0199766895, 2011. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-ruins-of-the-eternal-city-9780199766895

[5] Manniche, L., “An Ancient Egyptian Herbal,” British Museum Press, London, ISBN 978-0714119663, 2006.

[6] Schafer, E. H., “The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T’ang Exotics,” University of California Press, Berkeley, ISBN 978-0520054622, 1963.

[7] Brun, J.P., “The Production of Perfumes in Antiquity: The Cases of Delos and Paestum,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 104, No. 2, pp. 277-308, April 2000. https://www.jstor.org/stable/507452

[8] Berdan, F. F., “The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society,” Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, ISBN 978-0030595844, 1982.

[9] Cassin, E., “Mesopotamian Fragrance: Perfumes in Ancient Babylon and Assyria,” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 209-233, July 1984.

[10] Symrise, “Emilie Coppermann receives Prix François Coty,” December 4, 2018. https://www.symrise.com/newsroom/article/emilie-coppermann-receives-prix-francois-coty/

[11] Perfumer & Flavorist, “Mane Names Nyberg as VP of Creation, Fine Fragrance EMEA,” September 29, 2014. https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/news/people-news/Mane-Names-Nyberg-as-VP-of-Creation-Fine-Fragrance-EMEA-277232711.html

[12] Casabianca, H., et al., “Characterization of Archaeological Fragrant Resins and Royal Unguents by Combined Gas Chromatography Methods,” Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 399, 2011, pp. 2401–2413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-4638-z

[13] Osmothèque, “The Conservatory of Perfumes,” 2023. https://www.osmotheque.fr/en/

[14] Ellena, J.C., “Perfume: The Alchemy of Scent,” Arcade Publishing, New York, ISBN 978-1611450392, 2011.

[15] Institute for Art and Olfaction, “About IAO,” 2023. https://artandolfaction.com/about/

[16] Aftel, M., “Essence and Alchemy: A Natural History of Perfume,” Gibbs Smith, Layton, ISBN 978-1586857028, 2001. https://www.aftelier.com/category-s/1822.htm

[17] Stamelman, R., “Perfume: Joy, Obsession, Scandal, Sin - A Cultural History of Fragrance from 1750 to the Present,” Rizzoli, New York, ISBN 978-0847833368, 2006.

[18] Aftel, M., “Fragrant: The Secret Life of Scent,” Riverhead Books, New York, ISBN 978-1594631412, 2014.

[19] Casabianca, H., “Modern Analytical Methods Applied to Ancient Perfumery,” in “Perfume Engineering: Design, Performance & Classification,” Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, pp. 175-200, 2013.

[20] Classen, C., Howes, D., & Synnott, A., “Aroma: The Cultural History of Smell,” Routledge, London, ISBN 978-0415114714, 1994.

[21] Freedman, P., “Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination,” Yale University Press, New Haven, ISBN 978-0300151350, 2008. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300151350/out-east

[22] Turin, L., “The Secret of Scent: Adventures in Perfume and the Science of Smell,” Ecco, New York, ISBN 978-0061133848, 2006.