The Olfactory Museum: Preserving Endangered Scents in the Anthropocene

In the hushed halls of the Olfactory Museum, a small vial holds what appears to be nothing but air. Yet, this seemingly empty container carries within it a treasure more precious than gold – the reconstructed scent of 17th-century Amsterdam. This invisible artifact, a complex bouquet of tobacco, canal water, and exotic spices, represents humanity’s newest frontier in heritage conservation: the preservation of our vanishing olfactory world.

The concept of olfactory heritage encompasses the rich tapestry of scents that have shaped human culture and history. As we embark on this aromatic journey through time, we’ll explore the rise and fall of iconic scents, the challenges they face in our changing world, and the innovative efforts to preserve them for future generations.

Our olfactory voyage begins in the lush forests of Mysore, India, where the story of sandalwood unfolds like a fragrant epic spanning over three millennia. Santalum album, known as Mysore sandalwood, has been revered in Indian culture since ancient times. In 1792, it achieved the distinguished status of “Royal tree” of the Mysore dynasty, cementing its importance in the region’s cultural fabric.

The creamy, woody aroma of Mysore sandalwood has perfumed religious ceremonies, graced cosmetic preparations, and formed the heart of countless perfumes. Its significance in Indian tradition is so profound that a popular saying suggests the tree’s fragrance persists even in the axe that fells it – a testament to its enduring aromatic power.

During the mid-20th century, Mysore sandalwood reached the zenith of its commercial success. The 1960s saw an annual production of 4,000 tons, with its precious oil flowing into markets worldwide. Perfumers prized its rich, smooth scent, using it as a fixative to extend the life of their creations and as a base note to build complex fragrances.

However, this golden age was not to last. The very qualities that made Mysore sandalwood so desirable would also lead to its downfall.

As we move into the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the aromatic landscape begins to shift dramatically. The story of Mysore sandalwood takes a dark turn, mirroring the fate of many endangered scents across the globe.

By 2014, the annual production of Mysore sandalwood had plummeted to a mere 350 tons – less than 10% of its peak output. This precipitous decline stems from a perfect storm of environmental challenges and human activities:

1. Habitat Loss : Over 90% of the natural sandalwood habitat has vanished in recent decades. Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization have fragmented the once-vast sandalwood forests, leaving the trees isolated and vulnerable.

2. Illegal Harvesting : The high market value of sandalwood has fueled rampant poaching. Approximately 80% of sandalwood harvesting occurs illegally, disrupting the delicate ecological balance and threatening the species’ survival.

3. Climate Change : Shifting temperature and precipitation patterns have altered the growing conditions for sandalwood trees. These changes have made the trees more susceptible to pests and diseases, further compromising their survival.

As habitats change and traditional practices fade, many endangered scents face the risk of disappearing forever. The decline of Mysore sandalwood serves as a poignant reminder of the fragility of our olfactory heritage.

As our aromatic journey moves into the modern era, we witness another dimension of scent transformation through agricultural evolution. The story of Rosa damascena—the Damask rose—stands as a compelling example of how human cultivation practices have reshaped our olfactory landscape.

In the ancient gardens of Persia, Damask roses bloomed with intoxicating complexity, their scent profiles containing hundreds of volatile compounds that created multidimensional fragrances. Chemical analysis of today’s commercially grown roses reveals a startling transformation. Modern scientific research has identified over 200 volatile metabolites across 24 chemical classes in the flowers and leaves. However, analysis shows that modern cultivation techniques have altered this delicate chemical balance.

The shift toward high-yield monocultures has reduced genetic diversity within these aromatic populations. Contemporary Rosa damascena cultivation employs tissue culture advancement and in vitro propagation techniques with specific plant growth regulators, achieving impressive 90%+ survival rates in greenhouse conditions. While these practices have improved production efficiency, they’ve created standardized scent profiles that often lack the nuance of their ancestors.

Agricultural changes manifest in the marketplace as well. The global rose oil market, valued at USD 1.67 billion in 2023, continues to grow toward a projected USD 2.5 billion by 2032. This commercial pressure drives selection for traits like disease resistance and oil yield, often at the expense of complex fragrance molecules.

Additionally, modern pest management disrupts the natural defense mechanisms of roses. Many of the volatile aromatic compounds in roses evolved as protection against pests and environmental stressors. When plants are artificially protected through pesticides, they often reduce production of these defensive compounds, fundamentally altering their scent profiles.

The plight of endangered scents extends beyond the world of perfumery, touching even the foods we eat. Consider the story of the Gros Michel banana, once the king of the global banana trade. This variety, affectionately known as “Big Mike,” dominated the market until the 1950s with its thick, resilient peel and rich, sweet flavor.

The Gros Michel’s reign seemed unassailable until a fungal disease known as Panama disease began to ravage plantations. The monoculture farming practices that had made the Gros Michel so commercially successful also rendered it catastrophically vulnerable. By the 1960s, the Gros Michel had vanished from commercial cultivation, replaced by the disease-resistant but less flavorful Cavendish variety.

Intriguingly, the Gros Michel’s legacy lives on in an unexpected place – artificial banana flavoring. The distinctive taste of banana-flavored candies and medicines is based on the Gros Michel’s flavor profile, particularly its high concentration of isoamyl acetate. This chemical compound, present in both natural bananas and artificial flavorings, provides a tangible link to a fruit that most people alive today have never tasted.

The tale of the Gros Michel banana serves as a stark warning about the risks of agricultural monoculture and the potential for losing not just species, but entire sensory experiences. It underscores the importance of biodiversity and the need for sustainable practices in preserving our olfactory and gustatory heritage.

Our journey now takes us to the ancient city of Kannauj in northern India, where time seems to stand still in the realm of fragrance creation. Known as the “Perfume Capital of India,” this city presents a living museum of traditional perfumery techniques that have remained largely unchanged for centuries.

Kannauj’s perfume heritage stretches back over 60,000 years, reaching its zenith during the Mughal era when it became an integral part of royal culture. Today, the city houses more than 500 traditional attar manufacturing units, each preserving techniques that modern industrial processes cannot replicate.

At the heart of Kannauj’s attar making is the deg-bhapka method, a meticulous process that begins with early morning flower harvesting and immediate processing to preserve freshness. The equipment used is not merely functional but contributes distinctive characteristics to the final fragrance:

• The deg (copper still) provides the initial distillation chamber

• The bhapka (receiver) collects the distilled liquid

• The chonga (bamboo pipe) transfers vapor between vessels

• The traditional bhatti serves as the heat source

• The gachchi provides a water tank for condensation

• The kuppi (leather bottle) stores the final product

Perhaps most distinctive are the clay condensers used in the process. This clay, collected from specific riverbanks and mixed according to formulas passed down through generations, imparts subtle earthy notes that modern stainless steel equipment cannot replicate.

The knowledge required for this craft extends far beyond written formulas. Master attar makers recognize precisely when a distillation should end based on the sound of bubbling liquid or when floral materials have yielded their optimal fragrance. These sensory skills represent tacit knowledge that faces extinction as older generations retire.

The preservation challenges are multifaceted. Resource scarcity, including diminishing availability of natural ingredients and strict regulations on materials like sandalwood, threatens authentic production. Market pressures from synthetic fragrances and limited e-commerce presence create economic challenges for traditional artisans. Yet hope remains through initiatives like the Geographical Indication tag awarded in 2014 and growing global appreciation for natural fragrances and traditional craftsmanship.

Our olfactory journey now encounters one of its most profound ethical crossroads in the story of agarwood, also known as oud. This precious aromatic material, formed when Aquilaria trees develop a resinous response to fungal infection, embodies the complex tensions between conservation, cultural preservation, and economic realities.

The conservation status of agarwood has reached a critical point. Analysis of CITES and customs data from 2010-2020 reveals significant undocumented trade volumes and continued reliance on endangered wild species despite regulations. The global agarwood trade has evolved into a multibillion-dollar industry, placing immense pressure on wild populations.

What makes the agarwood dilemma particularly complex is its profound cultural and religious significance across multiple traditions:

• In Hinduism, it’s referenced in the four Vedas (1500-1000 B.C.E.) and considered one of nature’s eight precious fragrant bounties

• In Christianity, it appears in both Old and New Testaments, including associations with Jesus’s burial

• In Islam, it was recommended by Prophet Muhammad for medicinal use and is described as an element of Paradise

• In Buddhism, it was present in the Buddha’s cremation and is mentioned in various Buddhist texts

This deep cultural integration means that simply prohibiting agarwood use would sever connections to centuries-old practices and traditions. The challenge lies in finding sustainable approaches that balance ecological preservation with cultural continuity.

Recent developments offer some hope. In April 2024, CITES implemented new export quotas for India: 151,080 kg/year for agarwood chips and 7,050 kg/year for agarwood oil. Research on sustainable cultivation has advanced significantly, with successful artificial induction through fungal inoculation, identification of key genetic mechanisms in resin production, and development of controlled cultivation methods.

The path forward requires a multifaceted approach including enhanced protection of natural habitats, stricter trade monitoring systems, development of sustainable cultivation practices, international collaboration, and integration of trade data in conservation strategies. Through these integrated efforts, we may preserve both the ecological sustainability of Aquilaria species and the rich cultural traditions associated with agarwood.

In the face of these challenges, scientists, conservationists, and perfumers are joining forces to preserve our olfactory heritage. Scent preservation techniques have evolved dramatically, allowing us to capture and store fragile aromas for future generations.

For Mysore sandalwood, conservation efforts are multifaceted:

1. Scientific Research : Institutions like the Indian Institute of Science are conducting genetic diversity studies and implementing advanced technologies such as remote sensing and GIS to monitor and protect sandalwood populations.

2. Government Initiatives : The Karnataka state government has launched programs like the Siri Chandana Vana scheme and the Karnataka State Sandalwood Policy 2022 to promote sustainable sandalwood cultivation.

3. Private Sector Involvement : Companies like Robertet, a leader in natural ingredients, are pioneering sustainable sourcing programs. Their “Seeds of Life” initiative aims to preserve endangered fragrance materials through cultivation practices and biotechnology.

These efforts extend beyond sandalwood. The ODEUROPA project, funded by the European Union with a €2.8M grant awarded in 2020, uses artificial intelligence to identify and catalog references to smells in historical texts and images. This ambitious initiative, coordinated by Dr. Inger Leemans from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, aims to create a digital encyclopedia of Europe’s olfactory heritage, allowing us to recreate the scents of the past.

The Olfactory Museum stands as a testament to our commitment to preserving the world’s aromatic legacy. Unlike traditional museums that primarily engage visual and auditory senses, this institution invites active participation through smell.

By recreating historical fragrances, we open a sensory window into the past, allowing us to experience history in a uniquely intimate way. Visitors can inhale the scents of ancient Egyptian perfumes, experience the aromatic landscapes of medieval monasteries, or sample the fragrant air of 18th-century Paris.

The museum also serves as a living laboratory, where cutting-edge technologies meet ancient aromatic wisdom. Here, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis works alongside traditional distillation techniques to unlock the secrets of endangered scents.

Dr. Cecilia Bembibre from University College London’s Institute for Sustainable Heritage has pioneered methods for documenting and preserving heritage smells. Using scientific techniques like gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection, she captures, analyzes, and archives historic odors. Her work with the ODEUROPA project has helped recreate scents such as 17th-century Amsterdam, bringing history to life through our sense of smell.

The Digital Olfaction Society, founded in 2010 and led by Dr. Marvin Edeas, represents another collaborative approach to scent documentation and preservation. This international organization brings together scientists, perfumers, historians, and technology developers to develop standardized protocols for the digital recording of scents, similar to how we have standardized formats for digital images or audio recordings.

Scent conservation efforts involve a delicate balance of scientific innovation and respect for traditional knowledge. The Olfactory Museum plays a crucial role in this process, not only preserving scents but also educating the public about the importance of olfactory heritage.

As we conclude our journey through the world of endangered scents, we’re left with a bittersweet appreciation for the complexity and fragility of our olfactory heritage. From the sandalwood forests of Mysore to the banana plantations of Central America, from the rose gardens of ancient Persia to the attar workshops of Kannauj, we’ve witnessed the profound impact of environmental changes on our sensory world.

Yet, in the face of these challenges, there is hope. The innovative work of scientists like Dr. Roman Kaiser, who has analyzed and preserved the scents of over 500 endangered plant species throughout his career at Givaudan, ensures that even when plants disappear from our world, their fragrances will endure. His book, “Scent of the Vanishing Flora,” documents 267 endangered plants, creating a lasting record of their aromatic profiles for future generations.

The Olfactory Museum, with its invisible but profoundly evocative exhibits, reminds us that heritage conservation must extend beyond the visible and tangible. In preserving these endangered scents, we’re not just saving chemical compounds – we’re safeguarding the invisible threads that connect us to our past, our cultures, and to each other.

As you leave this aromatic journey, take a moment to appreciate the scents around you. That whiff of coffee, the subtle fragrance of a nearby flower, or even the crisp scent of autumn leaves – each is a part of our living olfactory heritage. In recognizing and valuing these everyday aromas, we take the first step in ensuring they remain a part of our sensory landscape for generations to come.

Scents form an integral part of our cultural heritage and environmental history. They trigger powerful memories, connect us to our past, and provide valuable scientific information about changing ecosystems. When a scent disappears, we lose a dimension of human experience that cannot be captured through visual or auditory means alone. Additionally, many endangered scents contain molecules with potential applications in medicine, agriculture, and other fields—applications we may never discover if these aromatic compounds are lost. [33]

Modern scent preservation employs several techniques:

• Headspace technology captures volatile compounds in the air around an object

• Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyzes the chemical composition of scents

• Digital archiving records these chemical profiles for future reference

• Synthetic recreation uses this data to manufacture molecules that match the original scent

• DNA analysis and biotechnology can recreate scents from extinct species

• Traditional knowledge documentation preserves historical methods of scent extraction and use [34]

Yes, to varying degrees of accuracy. Using preserved specimens, DNA analysis, historical descriptions, and chemical analysis of related species, scientists can create reasonable approximations of extinct scents. While these recreations may not be perfect matches, they provide valuable insights into lost sensory experiences. Advanced biotechnology techniques now allow researchers to identify and potentially reproduce the scent molecules from plants that disappeared from Earth over a century ago.

Several categories of scents face imminent threat:

• Fragrances from endangered plant species (like certain orchids and sandalwood varieties)

• Scents associated with traditional manufacturing processes being replaced by industrial methods

• Environmental smellscapes altered by climate change and pollution

• Cultural scents disappearing as traditional practices decline

• Aromas associated with endangered culinary traditions and ingredients

1. Odeuropa. (2020). Odeuropa awarded €2.8M grant for research project on European olfactory heritage and sensory mining. Retrieved from https://odeuropa.eu/2020/11/odeuropa-awarded-horizon2020-grant-for-research-project-on-european-olfactory-heritage-and-sensory-mining/

2. Bembibre, C., & Strlič, M. (2017). Smell of heritage: a framework for the identification, analysis and archival of historic odours. Heritage Science, 5(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-016-0114-1

3. University College London. (2021). Cecilia Bembibre profile. UCL Institute for Sustainable Heritage. Retrieved from https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bartlett/heritage/people/mphilphd-students/cecilia-bembibre

4. Kaiser, R. (2011). Scent of the Vanishing Flora. Zürich: Wiley-VCH.

5. Givaudan. (2010). Givaudan supports the 2010 International Year of Biodiversity. Retrieved from https://www.givaudan.com/print/7961

6. Kannauj Attar. (2022). Traditional Method of Making Attars Using Hydrodistillation (Deg Bhapka Method). Retrieved from https://kannaujattar.com/traditional-method-of-making-attars-using-hydrodistillation-deg-bhapka-method/

7. TRAFFIC. (2024). Not-so-fragrant trading: demand for aromatic agarwood puts rare Philippines trees at risk. Retrieved from https://www.traffic.org/news/not-so-fragrant-trading-demand-for-aromatic-agarwood-threatens-source-aquilaria-trees-in-philippines/

8. Agarwood.vn . (2023). Agarwood and its value in culture and human life. Retrieved from https://agarwood.vn/news/agarwood-and-its-value-in-culture-and-human-life.html

9. BBC. (2014). The secrets of fake flavours. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20140829-the-secrets-of-fake-flavours

10. Summers-Miller, B. (2023). Bananas Don’t Taste Like They Used To. Here’s Why. Epicurious. Retrieved from https://www.epicurious.com/ingredients/history-of-the-gros-michel-banana

11. Pal, P. K. (2013). Review paper on genetic diversity of damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill) and economic importance of its oil. Ukrainian Journal of Ecology, 3, 59-65.

12. Shishkova, M., Ivanova, B., Beluhova-Uzunova, R., & Harizanova, A. (2022). Opportunities and challenges for sustainable production and processing of Rosa damascena in Bulgaria. Industrial Crops and Products, 186, 115184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115184